In 2019, the Kathmandu Valley Water Supply Management Board (KVWSMB) published a nearly 900-page book titled Stone Spouts and Ponds of Kathmandu Valley. The book reported that of 573 spouts documented in the Valley, 94 have completely perished, while the rest function seasonally. The collapse of this sophisticated water system was not simply a cultural loss but also the destruction of an urban infrastructure network that sustained the Valley population for more than 1,500 years.

Stone spouts, locally known as Hiti and Dhungedhara, are among the ancient structures that continue to function even today. The origin can be traced back to the 15th century Lichchhavi era, with the construction of the most celebrated spouts of Hadigaon in Kathmandu and Manga Hiti in Patan. This system expanded rapidly during the Malla regime between the 13th and 18th centuries when Malla Kings invested in constructing intricate networks of ponds, canals and spouts. King Pratap Malla of Kathmandu (1641-74) and King Jitamitra Malla of Bhaktapur (1673-96) established long canals, famously referred to as Rajkulo, for religious activities and also to supply water to spouts and farmland. The final monumental addition of the system came in 1828 when Queen Lalit Tripura Sundari and Mukhtiyar Bhimsen Thapa commissioned the construction of Sundhara.

These water conduits never functioned in isolation. Every spout was connected to a sophisticated underground hydraulic network. Water from various foothill sources and monsoon runoff was brought through Rajkulo into the pond, thereby recharging the aquifers. This underground water would pass through various filtration systems filled with sand, gravel, charcoal and lapsi before it reached the public spout. This shows that the Valley had a well-structured urban water supply system for centuries before the emergence of modern water networks. This system has worked for centuries, as it was designed and planned according to the Valley’s ecology rather than against it. Also, the areas around spouts served as space for social and cultural activities where people could interact and bond. One such example is the festival Sithi Nakha, when community members gather to clean the spouts and the well to honour the water deities.

Despite having its own ingenious and well-planned water system, Kathmandu Valley today suffers from chronic water scarcity. According to the 2025 Annual Report of Kathmandu Upatyaka Khanepani Limited (KUKL), the Valley’s water demand is 514 million litres per day (MLD), whereas KUKL’s average supply is only 232.4 MLD, with seasonal variations. As a result, people have tried to meet their water needs through groundwater extraction, private tankers and bottled water.

People in localities with nearby stone spouts still rely on these functioning traditional systems for daily household water use. These are mostly low-income households and the rental population who lack access to a piped water supply. This shows that stone spouts are socially and economically relevant for marginalised groups, though their conservation and management were somewhat ignored after the introduction of modern water supply.

There are multiple reasons for the rising demand for water. One of the main reasons is rapid population growth, as the Valley is a major hub for educational, professional and health opportunities. Migration increased significantly after the 1990s democratic movement and the Maoist conflicts in various parts of the country. In 1991, the population was around 1.1 million, and by 2021, it reached more than 2.9 million. With population growth came expanded built-up areas and pollution issues. The construction of new buildings, roads and pipelines not only affected green spaces and recharge but also blocked and damaged the traditional channels that carried water from the shallow aquifers and ponds to the spout. Sundhara of Kathmandu is a prime example. Elderly locals remember how it used to flow freely in the 1980s.

Water from stone spouts, therefore, has been affected in both its quantity and quality. Most operating spouts mainly function during the monsoon and remain dry during other seasons. Even when there’s water flow, people have to stand in a queue for a long period just to fill a single bucket of water. This burden falls disproportionately on women who are mostly responsible for managing household water.

In addition to increased built-up areas, excessive groundwater extraction has affected the flow. Also, increasing dry spells as a result of climate change have the potential to decrease the water discharge. The quality, on the other hand, has been affected by spills from sewage, septic tanks, industries and even agriculture. Studies have identified bacterial contamination and other issues, including elevated nitrate levels and noncompliance with the World Health Organization (WHO) drinking water standards. This indicates potential health hazards such as diarrhoea, typhoid and cholera in the absence of adequate testing and treatment.

Yet, there are a few reasons for optimism. Hiku Hiti of Dhobighat, Lalitpur, is one of the finest examples of a well-protected and community-managed spout water system. The premises of Hiku Hiti are always clean, the flow is consistent, and the spout remarkably supports the household activities and the livelihood of traditional washer communities. Understanding its significance, other communities in Kathmandu Valley are also putting efforts to conserve and restore spouts through regular cleaning, maintenance and establishing rules for the users. However, restoration activities need to go beyond cosmetic conservation since spouts are not mere decorative architecture. Therefore, protecting ponds, canals, recharge zones and aquifer connections is essential.

Local governments need to control encroachment on source and recharge areas, manage waste effectively and regulate groundwater extractions. In recent years, local governments have sought to draw public attention to the conservation of this ancient water system, raising hopes for stronger policy support to conserve spouts. Universities and the private sector could be engaged to upgrade traditional technology with modern innovations without compromising its authentic values. Regular monitoring of flow and quality of spout water may help in understanding the status of spout water and identifying associated problems.

Even parliamentarians need to discuss the significance of this traditional structure, as conserving spouts may diversify water sources, reduce pressure on the central water supply and support low-income groups of the Valley. These architecturally beautiful and traditional stone spouts are our national treasure. Protecting these spouts means preserving more than the beautiful architecture. It further strengthens water security, promotes community stewardship, preserves our rich culture and keeps our history alive.